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Yom Kippur (Hebrew:יוֹם
כִּפּוּר , IPA: also known in English as the Day of
Atonement, is the most solemn of the Jewish Holidays.
Its central themes are atonement and repentance. Jews
have traditionally observed this holiday with a
25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer. |
|
|
Date
Yom Kippur is the climax of the Yamim Noraim ("Days of
Awe"), and with Rosh Hashanah forms the Jewish High
Holy Days. The date is chosen based on Leviticus 23:27
which decrees a strict prohibition of work and
affliction of the soul upon the tenth day of the
seventh month, later known as Tishrei.
Yom Kippur Starts (at sundown) Ends (at night)
5768 2007-09-21 2007-09-22
5769 2008-10-08 2008-10-09
5770 2009-09-27 2009-09-28
5771 2010-09-17 2010-09-18
Observances
General observances
Five prohibitions are traditionally observed, as
detailed in the Jewish oral tradition (Mishnah
tractate Yoma 8:1):
1. Eating and drinking
2. Wearing leather shoes
3. Bathing/washing
4. Anointing oneself with perfumes or lotions
5. Marital relations
Total abstention from food and drink usually begins 30
minutes before sundown (called tosefet Yom Kippur lit.
Addition to Yom Kippur ), and ends after nightfall the
following day. Although the fast is required of all
healthy adults it is waived in the case of certain
medical conditions. Virtually all Jewish holidays
involve a ritual feast, but since Yom Kippur involves
fasting, Jewish law requires one to eat a large and
festive meal on the afternoon before Yom Kippur, after
the mincha prayer. Wearing white clothing is
traditional to symbolize one's purity on this day.
Many Orthodox men immerses themselves in a mikvah on
the day before Yom Kippur.
Eve of Yom Kippur
See also: Kol Nidre
Erev Yom Kippur ( lit. yom kippur eve) is the day
before the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur or the Day of
Atonement. It falls on the ninth day of the Hebrew
month of Tishrei. The day is commemorated with a
festive meal, giving of charity, and visiting others
to seek or give forgiveness.
Before sunset on the eve of Yom Kippur ("Day of
Atonement"), the congregation gathers in the
synagogue. The Ark is opened and two people take from
it two Torah scrolls. Then they take their places, one
on each side of the cantor, and the three recite:
In the tribunal of Heaven and the tribunal of earth,
by the permission of God — praised be He — and by the
permission of this holy congregation, we hold it
lawful to pray with transgressors."
The cantor then chants the Kol Nidre prayer (Hebrew:
כל נדרי) in Aramaic, not Hebrew. Its name is taken
from the opening words, meaning "All vows":
All personal vows we are likely to make, all personal
oaths and pledges we are likely to take between this
Yom Kippur and the next Yom Kippur, we publicly
renounce. Let them all be relinquished and abandoned,
null and void, neither firm nor established. Let our
personal vows, pledges and oaths be considered neither
vows nor pledges nor oaths.[1]
The leader and the congregation then say together
three times "May all the people of Israel be forgiven,
including all the strangers who live in their midst,
for all the people are in fault." The Torah scrolls
are then replaced, and the customary evening service
begins.
Prayer services
Many married men wear a kittel, a white robe-like
garment for evening prayers on Yom Kippur. They also
wear a tallis, the only evening service of the year in
which this is done. Prayer services begin with the
prayer known as "Kol Nidre," which must be recited
before sunset, and follows with the evening prayers (ma'ariv
or arvith), which includes an extended Selichot
service.
The morning prayer service is preceded by litanies and
petitions of forgiveness called selichot; on Yom
Kippur, many selichot are woven into the liturgy. The
morning prayers are followed by an added prayer (musaf)
as on all other holidays. It is followed by mincha
(the afternoon prayer) which includes a reading (Haftarah)
of the Book of Jonah. This is due to its story of
God's willingness to forgive those who repent. The
service concludes with the ne'ilah prayer, a prayer
specifically for Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur comes to an
end with a recitation of Shema Yisrael and the blowing
of the shofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast.
This article is part of the
Teshuva
series.
Repentance in Judaism
Confession in Judaism
Atonement in Judaism
Jewish services
Tzedakah
Selichot
Tashlikh
Ten Days of Repentance
Kapparot
Mikvah
Yom Kippur
Ta'anit
Baal teshuva movement
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The Avodah: Remembering the Temple service
A recitation of the sacrificial service of the Temple
in Jerusalem traditionally features prominently in
both the liturgy and the religious thought of the
holiday. Specifically, the Avodah ("service") in the
musaf prayer recounts the sacrificial ceremonies in
great detail.
This traditional prominence is rooted in the
Babylonian Talmud's description of how to attain
atonement following the destruction of the Temple.
According to Talmud tractate Yoma, in the absence of a
Temple, Jews are obligated to study the High Priest's
ritual on Yom Kippur, and this study helps achieve
atonement for those who are unable to benefit from its
actual performance. In Orthodox Judaism, accordingly,
studying the Temple ritual on Yom Kippur represents a
positive rabbinically-ordained obligation which Jews
seeking atonement are required to fulfill.
In Orthodox, most Conservative, and some
progressive[2] synagogues a detailed description of
the Temple ritual is recited on the day. In most
Orthodox and some Conservative synagogues, the entire
congregation prostrates themselves at each point in
the recitation where the Kohen Gadol (High Priest)
would pronounce the Tetragrammaton (God's holiest
name, according to Judaism).
The main section of the Avodah is a threefold
recitation of the High Priest's actions regarding
expiation in the Holy of Holies. Performing the
sacrificial acts and reciting Leviticus 16:30, "for on
this day atonement shall be made for you, to atone for
you for all your sins, before God..." (he would recite
the Tetragrammaton at this point, to which the people
would prostrate to the ground) and after extending the
Name, he would finish the verse "...you shall be
purified." He would first ask for forgiveness for
himself and his family ("Your pious man"), then for
the priestly caste ("Your holy people"), and finally
for all of Israel ("Your upright children"). (These
three times, plus in some congregations the Alenu
prayer during the Musaf Amidah on Yom Kippur and Rosh
Hashanah, are the only times in Jewish services when
Jews engage in complete full-body prostration, with
the exception of some Yemenite Jews and talmedhei
haRambam who may prostrate themselves on other
occasions during the year). A variety of liturgical
poems are added, including a poem recounting the
radiance of the countenance of the Kohen Gadol after
exiting the Holy of Holies, traditionally believed to
emit palpable light in a manner echoing the Bible's
account of the countenance of Moses after descending
from Mount Sinai, as well as prayers for the speedy
rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of
sacrificial worship. There are a variety of other
customs, such as hand gestures to mime the sprinkling
of blood (one sprinkling upwards and seven downwards
per set of eight).
Orthodox liturgies include prayers lamenting the
inability to perform the Temple service and
petitioning for its restoration, which Conservative
synagogues generally omit. In some Conservative
synagogues, only the Hazzan engages in full
prostration. Some Conservative synagogues abridge the
recitation of the Avodah service to varying degrees,
and some omit it entirely. Many Reform and
Reconstructionist services omit the entire service as
inconsistent with modern sensibilities.
Observance among secular Jews
Yom Kippur is considered one of the holiest of Jewish
holidays, and its observance is held even among the
majority of secular Jews who may not strictly observe
other holidays. Many secular Jews will fast and attend
synagogue on Yom Kippur, where the number of
worshippers attending is often double or triple the
normal attendance.
Yom Kippur in Israel
By law, there are no radio or television broadcasts on
Yom Kippur, airports are shut down, there is no public
transportation, and all shops and businesses are
closed.[3] In 1973, an air raid siren was sounded on
the afternoon of Yom Kippur and radio broadcasts were
resumed to alert the public to the surprise attack
that launched the Yom Kippur War.
"Festival of Bicycles"
"Festival of Bicycles"
Beyond state-enforced restrictions, it is considered
bad form to eat in public on Yom Kippur or drive a
motor vehicle. Allowance is only made for ambulances
and emergency vehicles. Over the last few decades,
bicycle-riding on the empty streets has become a new
"tradition" among secular Israeli youngsters,
especially on the eve of Yom Kippur.[4] In
consequence, Yom Kippur is jocularly referred to as
the "Festival of Bicycles." [5] Bicycle sales rise in
the weeks before Yom Kippur, and companies have taken
to advertising children's bicycles as "Yom Kippur
specials."
Religious themes
This short section requires expansion.
The central themes of atonement and repentance.
Repentence includes both sins against God and one's
fellow man.
Yom Kippur in the Bible
The Torah calls the day Yom HaKippurim (יוֹם
הַכִּפּוּרִים) and in Leviticus 23:27 decrees a strict
prohibition of work and affliction of the soul upon
the tenth day of the seventh month, later known as
Tishrei. The rites for Yom Kippur are set forth in the
sixteenth chapter of Leviticus (cf. Exodus 30:10;
Leviticus 23:27-31, 25:9; Numbers 29:7-11). It is
described as a solemn fast, on which no food or drink
could be consumed, and on which all work is forbidden.
Midrashic interpretation
The midrashim described in this section need sources
cited from Midrashic literature
Traditionally, Yom Kippur is considered the date on
which Moses received the second set of Ten
Commandments. It occurred following the completion of
the second 40 days of instructions from God. At this
same time, the Israelites were granted atonement for
the sin of the Golden Calf, hence its designation as
the Day of Atonement.[6]
View of contemporary Biblical scholarship
According to textual scholars, the biblical
regulations covering Yom Kippur are spliced together
from multiple source texts,[7][8] as indicated by
evidence such as with the duplication of the
confession over the bullock,[9] and the incongruity in
one verse stating that the high priest shouldn't enter
the Holy of Holies (with the inference that there are
exceptions for certain explicitly identified
festivals),[10] and the next verse indicating that
they can enter whenever they wish (as long as a
specific ritual is carried out first).[11] Although
Rashi tried to find a harmonistic explanation for this
incongruity, the Leviticus Rabbah maintains that it
was indeed the case that the high priest could enter
at any time if these rituals were carried out.[12]
Textual scholars argue that the ritual is composed
from three sources, and a couple of redactional
additions[13][14]:
* prerequisite rituals before the high priest can
enter the Holy of Holies (on any occasion), namely a
sin offering and a whole offering, followed by the
filling of the Holy of Holies with a cloud of incense
while wearing linen garments[15]
* regulations which establish an annual day of fasting
and rest, during which the sanctuary and people are
purified, without stating the ritual for doing so[16];
this regulation is very similar to the one in the
Holiness Code[17]
* later elaborations of the ceremony,[18] which
include the sprinkling of the blood on the mercy seat,
and the use of a scapegoat sent to Azazel; the same
source also being responsible for small alterations to
related regulations[19]
* the redactional additions[20]
According to biblical scholars, the original ceremony
was simply the ritual purification of the sanctuary
from any accidental ritual impurity, at the start of
each new year, as seen in the Book of Ezekiel,[21]
which textual scholars date to before the priestly
source, but after JE.[22][23] According to the Book of
Ezekiel, the sanctuary was to be cleansed by the
sprinkling of bullock's blood, on the first day of the
first and of the seventh months[24] - near the start
of the Civil year and of the Ecclesiastical year,
respectively; although the masoretic text of the Book
of Ezekiel has the second of these cleansings on the
seventh of the first month, biblical scholars regard
the Septuagint, which has the second cleaning as being
the first of the seventh month, as being more accurate
here.[25] It appears that during the period that the
Holiness Code and the Book of Ezekiel were written,
the new year began on the tenth day of the seventh
month,[26][27] and thus biblical scholars believe that
by the time the Priestly Code was compiled, the date
of the new year and of the day of atonement had
swapped around.[28]
Yom Kippur in Mishnaic and Talmudic Literature
The Temple service
The following summary of the Temple service is based
on the traditional Jewish religious account described
in Mishnah tractate Yoma, appearing in contemporary
traditional Jewish prayerbooks for Yom Kippur, and
studied as part of a traditional Jewish Yom Kippur
worship service. [29]
While the Temple was standing in Jerusalem (from
Biblical times through 70 C.E.), the Kohen Gadol (High
Priest) performed a complex set of special services
and sacrifices for Yom Kippur. These services were
considered to be the most important parts of Yom
Kippur, as through them the Kohen Gadol made atonement
for all Jews in the world. During the service, the
Kohen Gadol entered the Holy of Holies in the center
of the Temple, the only time of the year that anyone
went inside. Doing so required special purification
and preparation, including five immersions in a mikvah
(ritual bath), and four changes of clothing.
Seven days prior to Yom Kippur, the Kohen Gadol was
sequestered in the Parhedrin chamber in the Temple,
where he reviewed the service with the Temple sages,
and was sprinkled with spring water containing ashes
of the Red Heifer as purification. The Talmud
(Tractate Yoma) also reports that he practiced the
incense offering ritual in the Avitnas chamber.
On the day of Yom Kippur, the Kohen Gadol had to
follow a precise order of services, sacrifices, and
purifications:
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v • d • e
* Morning (Tamid) Offering The Kohen Gadol first
performed the regular daily (Tamid) offering - usually
performed by ordinary priests - in special golden
garments, after immersing in a mikvah and washing his
hands and feet.
* Garment Change 1 The Kohen Gadol immersed in a
special mikvah in the Temple courtyard and changed
into special linen garments, and washed his hands and
feet twice, once after removing the golden garments
and once before putting on the linen garments.
* Lottery of the goats At the Eastern (Nikanor) gate,
the Kohen Gadol drew lots from a lottery box over two
goats. One was selected "for the Lord," and one "for
Azazzel." The Kohen Gadol tied a red band to the goat
"for Azazzel."
* Bull as Personal Sin-Offering The Kohen Gadol leaned
(performed Semikha) and made a confession over the
goat on behalf of himself and his household,
pronouncing the Tetragrammaton. The people prostrated
themselves when they heard. He then slaughtered the
bull as a chatat (sin-offering) and received its blood
in a bowl.
* Incense Preparation The Kohen Gadol ascended the
mizbeach (altar) and took a shovel full of embers with
a special shovel. He was brought incense. He filled
his hands and placed it in a vessel. (The Talmud
considered this the most physically difficult part of
the service, as the Kohen Gadol had to keep the
shovelful of glowing coals balanced and prevent its
contents from dropping, using his armpit or teeth,
while filling his hands with the incense).
* Incense Offering Holding the shovel and the vessel,
he entered the Kadosh Hakadashim, the Temple's Holy of
Holies. In the days of the First Temple, he placed the
shovel between the poles of the Ark of the Covenant.
In the days of the Second Temple, he put the shovel
where the Ark would have been. He waited until the
chamber filled with smoke and left.
* Sprinkling of Blood in the Holy of Holies The Kohen
Gadol took the bowl with the bull's blood and entered
the Most Holy Place again. He sprinkled the bull's
blood with his finger eight times, before the Ark in
the days of the First Temple, where it would have been
in the days of the Second. The Kohen Gadol then left
the Holy of Holies, putting the bowl on a stand in
front of the Parochet (curtain separating the Holy
from the Holy of Holies).
* Goat for the Lord as Sin-Offering for Kohanim The
Kohen Gadol went to the eastern end of the Israelite
courtyard near the Nikanor Gate, laid his hands (semikha)
on the goat "for the Lord," and pronounced confession
on behalf of the Kohanim (priests). The people
prostrated themselves when he pronounced the
Tetragrammaton. He then slaughtered the goat, and
received its blood in another bowl.
* Sprinkling of blood in the Holy Standing in the
Hekhal (Holy), on the other side of the Parochet from
the Holy of Holies, the Kohen Gadol took the bull's
blood from the stand and sprinkled it with his finger
eight times in the direction of the Parochet. He then
took the bowl with the goat's blood and sprinkled it
eight times in the same manner, putting it back on the
stand.
* Smearing of blood on the Golden (Incense) Altar The
Kohen Gadol removed the goat's blood from the stand
and mixed it with the bull's blood. Starting at the
northeast corner, he then smeared the mixture of blood
on each of the four corners of the Golden (Incense)
altar in the Haichal. He then sprinkled the blood
eight times on the altar.
* Goat for Azazzel The Kohen Gadol left the Haichal
and walked to the east side of the Azarah (Israelite
courtyard). Near the Nikanor Gate, he leaned his hands
(Semikha) on the goat "for Azazel" and confessed the
sins of the entire people of Israel. The people
prostrated themselves when he pronounced the
Tetragrammaton. While he made a general confession,
individuals in the crowd at the Temple would confess
privately. The Kohen Gadol then sent the goat off "to
the wilderness." In practice, to prevent its return to
human habitation, the goat was led to a cliff outside
Jerusalem and pushed off its edge.
* Preparation of sacrificial animals While the goat
"for Azazzel" was being led to the cliff, the Kohen
Gadol removed the insides of the bull, and intertwined
the bodies of the bull and goat. Other people took the
bodies to the Beit HaDeshen (place of the ashes). They
were burned there after it was confirmed that the goat
"for Azazzel" had reached the wilderness.
* Reading the Torah After it was confirmed that the
goat "for Azazzel" had been pushed off the cliff, the
Kohen Gadol passed through the Nikanor Gate into the
Ezrat Nashim (Women's Courtyard) and read sections of
the Torah describing Yom Kippur and its sacrifices.
* Garment change 2 The Kohen Gadol removed his linen
garments, immersed in the mikvah in the Temple
courtyard, and changed into a second set of special
golden garments. He washed his hands and feet both
before removing the linen garments and after putting
on the golden ones.
* Offering of Rams The Kohen Gadol offered two rams as
an olah offering, slaughtering them on the north side
of the mizbeach (outer altar), receiving their blood
in a bowl, carrying the bowl to the outer altar, and
dashing the blood on the northeast and southwest
corners of the Outer Altar. He dismembered the rams
and burned the parts entirely on the outer altar. He
then offered the accompanying mincha (grain) offerings
and nesachim (wine-libations).
* Musaf Offering The Kohen Gadol then offered the
Musaf offering.
* Burning of Innards The Kohen Gadol placed the
insides of the bull and goat on the outer altar and
burned them entirely.
* *Garment change 3 The Kohen Gadol removed his golden
garments, immersed in the mikvah, and changed to a new
set of linen garments, again washing his hands and
feet twice.
* Removal of Incense from the Holy of Holies The Kohen
Gadol returned to the Holy of Holies and removed the
bowl of incense and the shovel.
* Garment Change 4 The Kohen Gadol removed his linen
garments, immersed in the mikvah, and changed into a
third set of golden garments, again washing his hands
and feet twice.
* Evening (Tamid) Offering The Kohen Gadol completed
the afternoon portion of the regular (tamid) daily
offering in the special golden garments. He washed his
hands and feet a tenth time.
The Kohen Gadol wore five sets of garments (three
golden and two white linen), immersed in the mikvah
five times, and washed his hands and feet ten times.
Sacrifices included two (daily) lambs, one bull, two
goats, and two rams, with accompanying mincha (meal)
offerings, wine libations, and three incense offerings
(the regular two daily and an additional one for Yom
Kippur). The Kohen Gadol entered the Holy of Holies
three times. The Tetragrammaton was pronounced three
times, once for each confession.[30]
Yom Kippur and other religions
Christians and Yom Kippur
Main article: Day of Atonement (Christian holiday)
In Christianity the phrase Day of Atonement is usually
taken to refer to a more singular eschatological event
also known as Judgment Day, and most Christians ignore
Yom Kippur as they do not consider it to be part of
the New Covenant. However, many Christian theologians
and scholars acknowledge that there is a strong
connection between the two days; for example, one
Christian theologian argues that Yom Kippur is the
foreshadowing pre-text of Christ's future judgment of
mankind.[31]
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Fast Day of the
Exaltation of the Holy Cross is observed on September
14 in the Julian Calendar, roughly coinciding with Yom
Kippur (which oscillates with respect to the Julian
and Gregorian Calendars). One Orthodox priest – Rev.
Patrick Reardon – argues that it is obviously derived
from Yom Kippur, and that everyone realizes this.[32]
The Amish Christians also observe a Fast Day on
October 11 in the Gregorian Calendar, which similarly
coincides roughly with Yom Kippur.[33]
However, Yom Kippur is most comparative with the
Christian holy day of Good Friday. As Yom Kippur is
seen as the day for atonement of sins, so is Good
Friday depicted as the event which Christ granted
humanity atonement through his blood.
Muslim connection
According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad observed the
Day of Ashura fast in Mecca, as did the local
population where it was a common practice from
pre-Muslim times. When Muhammad led his followers to
Medina, he found the Jews of that area fasting on the
day of Ashura - or Yom Kippur. At this juncture, the
fast of that day became recommended for the Muslims.
The Ashura is commemorated for the following occasions
which Muslims believe happened on the 10th Day of
Muharram:
* The deliverance of Noah from the flood
* Abraham was saved from Nimrod's fire
* Jacob's blindness was healed and he was brought to
Joseph on this day
* Job was healed from his illness
* Moses was saved from the impeding Pharaoh's army
In the Shia tradition it is also the anniversary of
the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, Muhammed's grandson,
whom Shia consider to be his rightful heir.
However, numerous Sunni traditions in Sahih Muslim and
Sahih Bukhari confirm that fasting on Ashura was
abandoned by Muhammad when the fasting of Ramadan was
mandated. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, in his commentary on
Bukhari's collection, says that the obligatoriness of
the fast was superseded by fasting in Ramadan, a year
after his migration to Medina. Today, Sunnis regard
fasting on the 10th of Muharram as recommended, though
not obligatory. Conversely, Shias regard fasting on
that day as undesirable though not strictly forbidden.
Ashura and Yom Kippur no longer generally coincide,
since the Quran prohibited intercalation into the
lunar calendar,[34] resulting in the gradual shift of
the start of the 354 day Islamic year with respect to
the solar year, while the Hebrew Calendar retains
intercalation.
References
1. ^ Translation of Philip Birnbaum, from High Holyday
Prayer Book, Hebrew Publishing Company, NY, 1951
2. ^ An abbreviated version of the Seder Avodah is
used in Yom Kippur services at the Hebrew Union
College Jerusalem campus
3. ^ "Sounds of The City", article from Israel
Insider, October 14, 2005
4. ^ Yom Kippur: Nearly 2,000 injured. Ynetnews
(2006). Retrieved on 2006-10-02.
5. ^ See for instance uses at [1], [2]
6. ^ Spiro, Rabbi Ken. Crash Course in Jewish History
Part 12 - The Golden Calf. Aish HaTorah. accessed
April 29, 2007
7. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
8. ^ Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica
9. ^ Leviticus 16:6 and Leviticus 16:6
10. ^ Leviticus 16:2
11. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
12. ^ Leviticus Rabbah 21
13. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
14. ^ Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica
15. ^ Leviticus 16:1, 16:3-4, 16:12-13, 16:34 (b)
16. ^ Leviticus 16:29-34 (a)
17. ^ Leviticus 23:27-31
18. ^ Leviticus 16:5, 16:7-10, 16:14-28
19. ^ Exodus 30:10, Leviticus 25:9
20. ^ Leviticus 16:2, 16:6, 16:11
21. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Day of Atonement
22. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Priestly Source
23. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, Who wrote the Bible
24. ^ Ezekiel 45:18-20
25. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Day of Atonement
26. ^ Leviticus 25:9
27. ^ Ezekiel 40:1
28. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
29. ^ Arnold Lustiger, Michael Taubes, Menachem Genach,
and Hershel Schacter, Kasirer Edition Yom Kippur
Machzor With Commentary Adapted from the Teachings of
Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik. New York: K'hal
Publishing, 2006. pp. 588-589 (summary); 590-618.
30. ^ Arnold Lustiger, Michael Taubes, Menachem Genach,
and Hershel Schacter, Kasirer Edition Yom Kippur
Machzor With Commentary Adapted from the Teachings of
Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik. New York: K'hal
Publishing, 2006 pp. 588-589 (summary); 590-618.
31. ^ Sausa, Diego D. Kippur - the Final Judgment:
Apocalyptic Secrets of the Hebrew Sanctuary, Fort
Myers, FL: The Vision Press, 2006. ISBN 0-9788346-1-5.
32. ^ http://www.ancientfaithradio.com/specials/allsaints/
33. ^ http://www.dutchcrafters.com/aboutamish.aspx
34. ^ Qu'ran 9:36
* Talmud Bavli, The Schottenstein Edition of the
Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Yoma, Volume I. Mesorah
Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-89906-719-0
* Talmud Bavli, The Schottenstein Edition of the
Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Yoma, Volume II. Mesorah
Publications Ltd. ISBN 1-57819-001-0
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